In classical conditioning a stimulus that already leads to a response is replaced by a different stimulus. In operant conditioning a behaviour is picked out and either reinforced or punished to make it more or less common. So you could say one acts to modify or replace the stimulus that leads to a given response, and the other to modify or refine a response.
In terms of Pavlov's dog (classical) this meant replacing the smell of food, as the stimulus that leads to salivation, with the sound of a bell instead so that eventually even with the sound of the bell alone the dog has 'learned' to salivate. In terms of Skinner's cat (operant) the stimulus was confinement and the natural behaviour was to explore the environment for an escape. Teaching the cat to press the lever to get out can be seen as refining this behaviour with a reward. Here, of course, the cat was not shown how to press the lever. It discovered it randomly on it's own. But thereafter it did not waste much time before pressing the lever.
martes, 23 de marzo de 2010
Problems with Punishing
Several real-life incidents have helped me see the practical problems with using punishment in a school, home or society. One of the serious problems is that punishment can make people afraid to tell the truth.
In homes everyday children are taught to lie in order to protect themselves from being hurt and punished. Children are not born liars. Liars are created by the fear of punishment. "Johnny, do you know where all the cookies went?" "No, Mommy." The emotionally intelligent child will lie more quickly in the face of possible punishment. The emotionally intelligent child will see the signs of his mother's disapproval, he will hear it in her tone of voice. He will quickly process all the information he knows about her, for example, whether she has punished him or others in the past. He will make a decision based on his own survival instinct. If it were not for the fear of punishment, this child would have no reason to lie.
In the above examples we see two categories of problems. One is lying to protect oneself. The other is lying to protect someone else.
Another, more general problem with punishment is that it tends to diminish one's sense of self-worth. A person who is convinced they are worthy of punishment finds it difficult or impossible to feel worthy of love and caring. People who have been excessively punished while growing up have been groomed to be victims of abuse later in life. They lack the self-esteem to assert themselves and set healthy boundaries. They feel deserving of the abuse, just as they felt deserving of the punishment when they were young.
One more problem with punishement is that it does not teach any preferable behavior. For example, forcing a child to write "I will hit people" does not tell the child what to do instead of hitting.
A final problem with punishment is that it does not produce restitution. Restitution rebuilds a person's sense of self-worth and self-esteem, where as punishment diminishes it.
http://eqi.org/punish1.htm
Operant Conditioning
The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to stimuli that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response pattern is reinforced, the individual is conditioned to respond. The distinctive characteristic of operant conditioning relative to previous forms of behaviorism is that the organism can emit responses instead of only eliciting response due to an external stimulus.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's Stimuli-Response theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
The technical term for "an event started" or "an item presented" is positive, since it's something that's added to the animal's environment.
The technical term for "an event ended" or "an item taken away" is negative, since it's something that's subtracted from the animal's environment.
Anything that increases a behavior - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a reinforcer. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "starting Something Good" or "ending Something Bad" as something worth pursuing, and they will repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will increase the behaviors that lead to them, so they are reinforcers. These are consequences the animal will work to attain, so they strengthen the behavior.
Anything that decreases a behavior - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a punisher. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "ending Something Good" or "starting Something Bad" as something worth avoiding, and they will not repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will decrease the behaviors that lead to them, so they are punishers.
Applying these terms to the Four Possible Consequences, you get:
Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior increases = Positive Reinforcement.
Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior decreases = Negative Punishment
Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior decreases = Positive Punishment
Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behavior increases = Negative Reinforcement.
http://www.wagntrain.com/OC/#Operant
http://tip.psychology.org/skinner.html
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's Stimuli-Response theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers -- any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli -- punishment -- which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior.
The technical term for "an event started" or "an item presented" is positive, since it's something that's added to the animal's environment.
The technical term for "an event ended" or "an item taken away" is negative, since it's something that's subtracted from the animal's environment.
Anything that increases a behavior - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a reinforcer. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "starting Something Good" or "ending Something Bad" as something worth pursuing, and they will repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will increase the behaviors that lead to them, so they are reinforcers. These are consequences the animal will work to attain, so they strengthen the behavior.
Anything that decreases a behavior - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a punisher. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "ending Something Good" or "starting Something Bad" as something worth avoiding, and they will not repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will decrease the behaviors that lead to them, so they are punishers.
Applying these terms to the Four Possible Consequences, you get:
Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior increases = Positive Reinforcement.
Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior decreases = Negative Punishment
Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior decreases = Positive Punishment
Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behavior increases = Negative Reinforcement.
http://www.wagntrain.com/OC/#Operant
http://tip.psychology.org/skinner.html
miércoles, 17 de marzo de 2010
B. F. Skinner
Biography of the Psychologist:
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born March 20, 1904, in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna. His father was a lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife. His upbringing was old-fashioned and hard-working.
Burrhus was an active, out-going boy who loved the outdoors and building things, and actually enjoyed school. His life was not without its tragedies, however. In particular, his brother died at the age of 16 of a cerebral aneurysm.
Burrhus received his BA in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York. He didn’t fit in very well, not enjoying the fraternity parties or the football games. He wrote for school paper, including articles critical of the school, the faculty, and even Phi Beta Kappa! To top it off, he was an atheist -- in a school that required daily chapel attendance.
He wanted to be a writer and did try, sending off poetry and short stories. When he graduated, he built a study in his parents’ attic to concentrate, but it just wasn’t working for him.
Ultimately, he resigned himself to writing newspaper articles on labor problems, and lived for a while in Greenwich Village in New York City as a “bohemian.” After some traveling, he decided to go back to school, this time at Harvard. He got his masters in psychology in 1930 and his doctorate in 1931, and stayed there to do research until 1936.
Also in that year, he moved to Minneapolis to teach at the University of Minnesota. There he met and soon married Yvonne Blue. They had two daughters, the second of which became famous as the first infant to be raised in one of Skinner’s inventions, the air crib. Although it was nothing more than a combination crib and playpen with glass sides and air conditioning, it looked too much like keeping a baby in an aquarium to catch on.
In 1945, he became the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was invited to come to Harvard, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was a very active man, doing research and guiding hundreds of doctoral candidates as well as writing many books. While not successful as a writer of fiction and poetry, he became one of our best psychology writers, including the book Walden II, which is a fictional account of a community run by his behaviorist principles.
August 18, 1990, B. F. Skinner died of leukemia after becoming perhaps the most celebrated psychologist since Sigmund Freud.
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html
Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born March 20, 1904, in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna. His father was a lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife. His upbringing was old-fashioned and hard-working.
Burrhus was an active, out-going boy who loved the outdoors and building things, and actually enjoyed school. His life was not without its tragedies, however. In particular, his brother died at the age of 16 of a cerebral aneurysm.
Burrhus received his BA in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York. He didn’t fit in very well, not enjoying the fraternity parties or the football games. He wrote for school paper, including articles critical of the school, the faculty, and even Phi Beta Kappa! To top it off, he was an atheist -- in a school that required daily chapel attendance.
He wanted to be a writer and did try, sending off poetry and short stories. When he graduated, he built a study in his parents’ attic to concentrate, but it just wasn’t working for him.
Ultimately, he resigned himself to writing newspaper articles on labor problems, and lived for a while in Greenwich Village in New York City as a “bohemian.” After some traveling, he decided to go back to school, this time at Harvard. He got his masters in psychology in 1930 and his doctorate in 1931, and stayed there to do research until 1936.
Also in that year, he moved to Minneapolis to teach at the University of Minnesota. There he met and soon married Yvonne Blue. They had two daughters, the second of which became famous as the first infant to be raised in one of Skinner’s inventions, the air crib. Although it was nothing more than a combination crib and playpen with glass sides and air conditioning, it looked too much like keeping a baby in an aquarium to catch on.
In 1945, he became the chairman of the psychology department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was invited to come to Harvard, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was a very active man, doing research and guiding hundreds of doctoral candidates as well as writing many books. While not successful as a writer of fiction and poetry, he became one of our best psychology writers, including the book Walden II, which is a fictional account of a community run by his behaviorist principles.
August 18, 1990, B. F. Skinner died of leukemia after becoming perhaps the most celebrated psychologist since Sigmund Freud.
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/skinner.html
viernes, 5 de marzo de 2010
10 Interesting Facts About Gender Psychology: Men vs. Women
1. Men change their minds two to three times more often than women. Most women take longer to make a decision than men do, but once they make a decision they are more likely to stick to it.
2. Based on the total number of people tested since IQ tests were devised, women have a slightly higher average IQ than men
3. Women are better than men at remembering faces, especially of females.
4. Men are more likely to help than women!
5. Women are more pessimistic when predicting their work results.
6. Most women tend to believe that they are only good at certain tasks, but not capable of being good at everything.
7. Women are more fearful and anxious than men.
8. Women are twice more talkative than men! It has been estimated that on average, men speak 12,500 words and women speak about 25,500 words in a day.
9. Men, on average, think about sex every 7 seconds.
10. The female brain is much more adept at reading subtle facial and verbal emotional expressions. Some woman say that only when men see actual tears they realize that something is wrong. This is why women have to cry four times more than men do, to signal distress.
2. Based on the total number of people tested since IQ tests were devised, women have a slightly higher average IQ than men
3. Women are better than men at remembering faces, especially of females.
4. Men are more likely to help than women!
5. Women are more pessimistic when predicting their work results.
6. Most women tend to believe that they are only good at certain tasks, but not capable of being good at everything.
7. Women are more fearful and anxious than men.
8. Women are twice more talkative than men! It has been estimated that on average, men speak 12,500 words and women speak about 25,500 words in a day.
9. Men, on average, think about sex every 7 seconds.
10. The female brain is much more adept at reading subtle facial and verbal emotional expressions. Some woman say that only when men see actual tears they realize that something is wrong. This is why women have to cry four times more than men do, to signal distress.
lunes, 1 de marzo de 2010
Ivan Pavlov: His Drooling Dogs and Classical Conditioning
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born to a Russian Orthodox priestly family in Ryazan in September 1849. He began his education locally but later progressed to a seminary and then to the University of St. Petersburg where he completed courses in Physiology and Medicine. Following his graduation from the University and from the Military Academy of Medicine in St. Petersburg he continued further studies in Breslau and Leipzig in Germany.
After the completion of some two years of studies in Germany (1884-1886) he returned to St. Petersburg taking up a junior post in Physiology at the University. In or around 1890 he was appointed to a professorship of Pharmacology in the Institute of Experimental Medicine at St Petersburg. In this role he also functioned as the head of the Physiology department.
Whilst Ivan Pavlov was involved with physiological researches with dogs for several years it was only in or or around 1889 that his famous dog research experiments with reflex conditioning or classical conditioning were begun. These experiments were subsequently continued over thirty years.
In 1904 Ivan Pavlov was awarded a Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine in relation to his researches in the area of digestive processes. He had become interested in the relationship between salivation and the digestive process. Quite apart from finding that saliva was of the first importance as an aid to digestion he also noticed that dogs that had been familiarised with the pre-feeding routines in his research facility began to salivate apparently in association with certain pre-feeding routines being initiated.
In order to explicitly validate his observations he began to feed his dogs in association with the ringing of a bell. After a certain time the dogs were shown to salivate profusely in association with the ringing bell where the actual sight or smell of food was not also present. Pavlov regarded this salivation as being a conditioned reflex and designated the process by which the dogs had picked up this reflex classical conditioning.
Despite seeming to have been personally opposed to Communism his fame was such that the Soviet government built a specialist research laboratory to accomodate his studies in 1935. It happened however that Ivan Pavlov did not derive much benefit from this new facility as he passed on in 1936
After the completion of some two years of studies in Germany (1884-1886) he returned to St. Petersburg taking up a junior post in Physiology at the University. In or around 1890 he was appointed to a professorship of Pharmacology in the Institute of Experimental Medicine at St Petersburg. In this role he also functioned as the head of the Physiology department.
Whilst Ivan Pavlov was involved with physiological researches with dogs for several years it was only in or or around 1889 that his famous dog research experiments with reflex conditioning or classical conditioning were begun. These experiments were subsequently continued over thirty years.
In 1904 Ivan Pavlov was awarded a Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine in relation to his researches in the area of digestive processes. He had become interested in the relationship between salivation and the digestive process. Quite apart from finding that saliva was of the first importance as an aid to digestion he also noticed that dogs that had been familiarised with the pre-feeding routines in his research facility began to salivate apparently in association with certain pre-feeding routines being initiated.
In order to explicitly validate his observations he began to feed his dogs in association with the ringing of a bell. After a certain time the dogs were shown to salivate profusely in association with the ringing bell where the actual sight or smell of food was not also present. Pavlov regarded this salivation as being a conditioned reflex and designated the process by which the dogs had picked up this reflex classical conditioning.
Despite seeming to have been personally opposed to Communism his fame was such that the Soviet government built a specialist research laboratory to accomodate his studies in 1935. It happened however that Ivan Pavlov did not derive much benefit from this new facility as he passed on in 1936
John V. Watson: Little Albert Experiment
It is widely known that human beings are born with only two natural fears. One is the fear of falling and the second is the fear of loud noises. Where, then, do all of our other fears come from?
In 1920, John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner performed a conditioning experiment on an infant by the name of Albert B. He was given a white rat and his reaction was noted to be playful. He had no fear of the white rat and was even comfortable picking the rodent up while playing with it.
The next time the rat was given to Albert, he did exactly the same thing. This time, the psychologists made a loud noise using a metal pipe and a hammer. The noise was so sudden and loud that it made little Albert cry. They did the same thing mutliple times. Finally, when they gave Albert the rat without the noise, the child would cry at the mere sight of the animal.
Next, they introduced a white rabbit and as soon as Albert saw the animal, he began to cry. They gave him a Santa Claus mask which also made him cry. Little Albert was conditioned to cry at the sight of the white rat, but in the process, he made the connection to anything that was white and furry would lead to a loud noise.
This experiment gives us much insight into the parameters of the human mind. However, this experiment would be considered unethical by today's standards.
In 1920, John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner performed a conditioning experiment on an infant by the name of Albert B. He was given a white rat and his reaction was noted to be playful. He had no fear of the white rat and was even comfortable picking the rodent up while playing with it.
The next time the rat was given to Albert, he did exactly the same thing. This time, the psychologists made a loud noise using a metal pipe and a hammer. The noise was so sudden and loud that it made little Albert cry. They did the same thing mutliple times. Finally, when they gave Albert the rat without the noise, the child would cry at the mere sight of the animal.
Next, they introduced a white rabbit and as soon as Albert saw the animal, he began to cry. They gave him a Santa Claus mask which also made him cry. Little Albert was conditioned to cry at the sight of the white rat, but in the process, he made the connection to anything that was white and furry would lead to a loud noise.
This experiment gives us much insight into the parameters of the human mind. However, this experiment would be considered unethical by today's standards.
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